Peer Assessment, Achievement Motivation, writing Achievement

THE EFFECT OF PEER ASSESMENT ON STUDENTS’ WRITING ACHIEVEMENT WITH DIFFERING ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVATION

By I.G.A. Lokita Purnamika Utami

Abstract
The aim of this study was to prove whether the implementation of peer assessment and the students’ achievement motivation give a significant interactional effect to the students’ writing achievement. The results of the analysis are; first, there was a significant effect of peer assessment on the students’ writing achievement. Second, there was a significant interactional effect between the application of peer assessment and achievement motivation on students’ writing achievement. Afterwards the data was analyzed by using Tukey test to gain more specific result of the comparison between all means.
Keywords: achievement motivation, peer assessment, writing achievement

Abstrak
Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk membuktikan apakah implementasi dari asesmen rekan sebaya dan motivasi berprestasi siswa memiliki pengaruh interaksional yang signifikan terhadap prestasi menulis mahasiswa. Hasil analisis menunjukkan: pertama, asesmen rekan sebaya memberikan pengaruh yang signifikan terhadap prestasi menulis mahasiswa. Kedua, terdapat pengaruh interaksional yang signifikan antara asesmen rekan sebaya dan motivasi berprestasi terhadap prestasi menulis mahasiswa. Kemudian analisis data dilanjutkan dengan menggunakan tes Tukey untuk melihat perbandingan dari seluruh rata-rata kelompok.secara lebih spesifik.
Kata kunci: motivasi berprestasi, asesmen rekan sebaya, prestasi menulis

1. Introduction

Writing as one of the language skills is very important to be mastered. This is because people communicate not only in spoken but also written. Considering that rationale, teaching writing need to be taken seriously in class. Writing activity is a very personal activity. However, assessing writing is not. Students need others to help them assess their writing. And this can be done by their lecturer or by their peer.
Some researches have been conducted regarding the application of peer assessment in the writing class and the comparison between peer assessment and the conventional assessment used in writing class. However, this research investigated one more variable, it was achievement motivation students.
The students may be categorized into high achievement motivated and students with low achievement motivation. The theory says that motivation is one which influences human to attain their goals (Heckhausen & Heckhaussen, 2008). Therefore, theoretically students with high achievement motivation will improve their achievement better than students with low achievement motivation. However, there is a question related to the writing achievement improvement of particular level of achievement motivated students when they are treated by using peer assessment. Do students with high achievement motivation still do better than students with low achievement motivation? If they do, what make it so? This research tried to find out whether an interaction exist between peer assessment and achievement motivation in improving writing achievement.
Specifically, there were 6 objectives which were related with the statements of problems to be resolved in this research. They were: (1) finding out whether peer assessment give a significant effect on the students’ writing achievement; (2) finding out whether a significant interactional effect exists between peer assessment and students’ achievement motivation in improving the students’ writing achievement; (3) finding out whether a significant difference on the writing achievement of the students with high achievement motivation exists when their writings are assessed by using peer assessment and when their writings are assessed by conventional assessment; (4) finding out whether a significant difference on the writing achievement of the students with low achievement motivation exists when their writings are assessed by using peer assessment and when their writing are assessed by conventional assessment; (5) finding out whether a significant difference between the students’ writing achievement of the students with high achievement motivation and the students with low achievement motivation exists when their writings are assessed by using peer assessment; (6) finding out whether a significant difference between the students’ writing achievement of the students with high achievement motivation and the students with low achievement motivation exists when their writings are assessed by conventional assessment



2. Theoretical Review

2.1 L2 Acquisition Theories

Krashen (in Ellis, 1986) considers the notion of how affective factors relate to SLA. It is ‘affective’ because the factors which determine its stregth have to do with the learners’ motivation, self confidence and anxiety state. Learners with high motivation and self confidence and low anxiety have low filters and so obtain and let in plenty of input. Learners with low motivation, little self confidence and high anxiety have high filters and so receive little input and allow even less in. Another factors which influence the rate of SLA development is aptitude, the role of first language, routines and patterns, individual differences and age.
The theories above underpin certain strategies used by teacher to improve students L2 learning. These strategies may consist of involving students in contextual interaction or communication; enhancing students’ motivation by providing students with various activity, media and so on; introducing target language culture as it may enhance students’ favourable comparison betwen their ingroup and outgroup; and reducing students’ anxiety and heightening students’ self confidence in L2 class by involving students in the process of learning and assessment.

2.2 The Concept of Writing

Olshtain (2001) explains that writing is an act of communication, which suggests an interactive process takes place between the writer and reader via written text. In addition Orwig (1998) defines writing as a process of communicating thought of the writer through a medium of text. It is used for communicating indirectly, not face to face to others (Tarigan, 1994). The writer usually has a bound of time to think about what to say and how to say it.
Hakim (2004) states that writing is mainly an effort to express what we look, undergo, feel and think. Through writing we communicate to many people, we might otherwise never meet. Writers can explore their deepest thoughts and feelings, discover and explore their ideas, and confront their values. Writing can help us discover gaps in our understanding and flaws in our thinking. It is one of the ways of sharing or expressing thoughts, ideas, and feelings in the written form
To be a more effective writer, a writer should meet the understanding that writing is a process. As stated by Langan (2001) that writing is a process of discovery that involves a series of steps of practices. Therefore, the assumption that writing is a ‘natural gift’ should not be considered, since writing is a skill that can be trained.
Langan (2001) points out some steps in writing an effective composition. First, discovering a point and developing solid support for the point through prewriting. Second, organizing the supporting material and writing it out in a first draft. Third, revising and then editing carefully to ensure an effective, error-free paper
However, Gardner and Johnson (1997) believe that writing process is not a highly organized linear process, but rather a continual movement between the different steps of the writing model. Flower And Hayes (1981) believe that writing involves a cognitive process. They state that the model of Prewriting - Writing – Rewriting which was fundamentally believe as the three non-reversible linear stages in composing process, only model the growth of the product and do not explain how writers move from one stage to the next. It is clear that writers plan, write and revise repeatedly, in a way which cannot be divided into clearcut stages. They published “A Cognitive Process Theory of Writing” in 1981, providing the groundwork for further research into how thought processes influence the writing process.
Beside the theory of writing as a cognitive process, writing is also said as a creative process. Creativity is one of the important benchmarks for a writer. All writing flows out of some sort of creative process. Each writer is different and their creative process is also different. Works for one writer may not work for others (Brereton and Morgan, 1996).

2.3 Peer Assessment in Writing
Hanna & Dettmer (2004) states that assessment is often equated and confused with evaluation, but the two concepts are different. Assessment is used to determine what a student knows or can do, while evaluation is used to determine the worth or value of a course or program
]Assessment in writing can be done by involving students, this is know as peer assessment. Falchikov (2001) states that peer assessment is an assessment in which member of a class give feedback and grade the work or perfomance of their peers using relevant criteria. In peer assessment marks may be awarded by students or negotiated with teachers. Peer assessment has been long introduced as one of assessment in writing. This assessment involves students to review their peer’s paper and put notes or comments on grammar, ideas organization, vocabulary, structure, punctuation and so forth. This way students learn from each others in every dimension of writing, i.e. content accuracy, vocabulary knowledge, grammar and sentence structure and also ideas organization. In line with this, Falchikov (2001) points out that the objective to have students review their peer’s writing is to enable students to teach and learn from each other and also to develop writing skill. Moreover, more errors are corrected since more proof reading is carried out.
In addition, Ahmad (2001) found that peer involvement in writing class is very beneficial to be considered. He found that students are more challenged since they could give feedback on each other writings. Each students tries to write a good piece of writing, since they know that their writing will gain feedback from the others. Besides, students feel confident to write as they also learn that making mistake is something natural, something that their peer possibly do. Also, peer involvement in writing helps students to learn not only from their mistakes but from the mistakes of others and makes economical and efficient use of the students' and the teacher's time (Mcbride, 2006). In line with this, Zulharman (2007) states that assessment by peers give students chance to learn from the strength and weaknesses of other’s writing, since in peer assessment students are involved not only grading it but also in reviewing it.

2.4 Achievement Motivation

Motivation is defined by Rabideau (2005) as the driving force behind all the actions of an individual. The influence of an individual's needs and desires both have a strong impact on the direction of their behavior. Motivation is based on your emotions and achievement-related goals.
Generally motivation can be from the students’ inside factor, which is called internal motivation; and can be from outside factors, which is called external motivation. In other term, Heckhausen & Heckhausen (2008) states that motivation is a product of person and situation. An Individual’s motivation to aspire to a certain goal is influenced by person factors (internal factors) and by situation factors (external factors), including the anticipated outcomes. Those belong to the students’ external motivation (or as Heckhausen’s term the situation factors) are the students’ environment, facilities, parents support, their teacher or peer. And those belong to internal motivation or person factors are students need for achievement, students expectetion and another internal desire.
Achievement is undoubtedly the most thoroughly studied motive. Over the years behavioral scientists have observed that some people have an intense need to achieve; others, perhaps the majority, do not seem to be as concerned about achievement. It was first identified in Henry A. Murray’s list of psychogenic need as “n(eed) achievement”. It is describe in the following terms:
To accomplish something difficult. To master, manipulate or organize physical objects, human beings or ideas. To do this as rapidly and as independently as possible. To overcome obstacles and attain a high satndard. To excel one’s self. To rival and surpass others. To increase self regard by the succesful exercise of talent (Murray, 1938. P.164 in Hechausen, 2008)

Murray can also be considered a pioneer of achievement motivation research in another respect, namely, as the author of the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). Later McClelland, Atkinson, Clark, and Lowell developed this instrument into one of the best known and most frequently used procedures for measuring people’s underlying motives. McClelland and associates (1953) as cited by Brunstein & Heckhausen (2008) defined Achievement Motivation as a behavior which involves competition with a standard of excellent. Similarly, Heckhausen & Heckhausen (2008) states that achievement motive can be defined as a recurrent concern to compete with standards of excellence and to exceed the previous levels of competence. People with achievement motivation will always try to increase their competence.

3 Research Methods
This research was done in the English Education Departement at Ganesha University of Education in Singaraja, Bali. The research was conducted in one semester, specifically in the odd semester of the academic year 2009/2010, which was started from September 2009 until January 2010.
The research design was a Posttest Only Control-Group Design using a 2x2 Factorial arrangement One group received the experimental treatment (peer assessment) while the other received a different treatment (conventional assessment). This study used 2 x 2 factorial arrangement. There were 3 variables to be studied, 2 independent variables and 1 dependent variable. The first independent variable was writing assessment (A) as treatment variables. In this study the treatment variables were classified into peer assessment and conventional assessment. While, the second independent variable was achievement motivation in studying English (B) as moderator variable. The moderator variable was also classified into high achievement motivation and low achievement motivation. And the last, the dependent variable was writing achievement (Y).
The study was done in English Education Department in Undiksha, in academic year 2009-2010. The population was all students who took writitng II course. The total number of the population was 4 classes, which altogether consisted of 140 students. And the sample were 60 students which were assigned by using Multi Stage Random Sampling.
The instrument to collect data were writing test, and achievement motivation scale in studying english. Both of the instruments had been tried out to ensure their validity and reliability.
Data for this study were collected by using test and non test. Data which were collected by using test is writing achievement data. To collect this data the students were assigned to write a paragraph upon a particular topic. Their writings were then analyzed and scored by two raters which were based on the analytical assessment rubric. There were three writing test i.e. narrative test, descriptive test and cause and effect test. The students’ writings were assessed by two raters. Then, to ensure the reliability of the raters’ score, the inter-rater reliability analysis was conducted for each test.
The second data was the data which were collected by using non-test instrument. This data were collected by using the scale of Achievement Motivation in Studying English. The samples were given the scale to be responded. They marked a cross on each item in the scale which fits their characteristics. Score for each item was then added up to obtain Achievement Motivation in Studying English Score of each student
The data were analyzed by using descriptive statistic and inferential statistic. The inferential statistic was done by using two ways ANOVA and continued by post hoc analysis namely Tukey test. However, since two ways ANOVA and Tukey test are parametric statistical test, before the reseracher further analyzing data, the data were tested in order to find out whether it had normal distribution and homogeneity of variance or not. From the test namely The Kolmogorov-Smirnov statistic to investigate the normality, it was found that the data was normally distributed. Also, Levene’s test of Equality of Error variance which was conducted in order to know the homogeneity of variance data, found that the data was homogeneous

4 Findings and Discussion

Based on the data analysis, some findings are resulted:
First, from the first hypothesis testing, it was found that FA was 4.678. This value (FA) was then compared to Fcv (1;56;0,04) which was 4.421. Since FA was higher than Fcv, then H0 was rejected. This means there was a significant difference in the students’ writing achievement between those whose writings are assessed by using peer assessment and those by using conventional assessment. And from the descrptive statistic analysis it was found that the students’ writing achievement of those whose writings were assessed by using peer assessment ( = 75.22) was higher than those whose writing were assessed by using conventional assessment ( = 70.91). From this result, it can be said that peer assessment gives a significant effect in improving students’ writing achievement.
Second, it was found that H0 of the second hypothesis was rejected. This was because the FAB (26.886) was higher than the Fcv (1;56;0,01) which was 7.110. This means that there was an interaction between the application of peer assessment and students’ achievement motivation in improving the students’ writing achievement.
Third, the average score of the group of students with high achievement motivation which were treated by using peer assessment was = 82.77. While the average score of the students with high achievement motivation which were treated by using conventional assessment was = 68.12. Moreover, the Tukey analysis found that the Qob was 7.351 and this value was higher than the Qcv(4;60;0.05) which equals to 3.74 and the Qcv(4;60;0.01) which equals to 4.59. This means the Qob was higher than the Qcv in both 0.05 and 0.01 level of significance, so H0 was rejected. This means that the difference between the students’ writing achievement of those with high achievement motivation when their writings were assessed by using peer assessment and conventional assessment was significant.
Fourth, the average score of the group of students with low achievement motivation which were treated by using peer assessment was = 67.68 While the average score of the students with low achievement motivation which were treated by using conventional assessment was = 73.70. Moreover, the third hypothesis found that the Qob was 3.021 and this value was lower the Qcv(4;60;0.05) which equals to 3.74. Therefore, H0 was accepted. This means that the difference between the low achievement motivated students’ writing achievement, when their writings were assessed by using peer assessment and conventional assessment was not significant.
Fifth, the students with high achievement motivation ( =82.77) had a better achievement than the students with low achievement motivation ( =67.68) when they were treated by using peer assessment. These scores were significantly different since the Qob was higher than the Qcv. It was found that the Qob was 7.572. From the q table it was found that the Qcv(4;60;0.05) was 3.74 and the Qcv(4;60;0.01) was 4.59. This means that there was a significant difference in the students’ writing achievement between the students with high achievement motivation and the students with low achievement motivation when their writings were assessed by using peer assessment.
Sixth, the students with low achievement motivation ( = 73.70) had a slightly better achievement than the students with high achievement motivation ( = 67.68). However the average scores of the two groups were not significantly different because the Qob was lower than the Qcv. it was found that the Qob was 2.799 while the Qcv(4;60;0.05) was 3.74. This means that there was no significant difference in the students’ writing achievement between the students with high achievement motivation and the students with low achievement motivation when their writings were assessed by using conventional assessment.
There are some reasons why peer assessment does well in writing class. Topping (2005, p. 640) asserts that “peer assessment can enhance self-assessment, and both can yield metacognitive gains.” He also suggests various other advantages to peer assessment. Peer Assessment can increase student responsibility and autonomy, also evaluative skill development; give insight into assessment procedures and expectations for high quality work; motivate students to work harder with the knowledge that they will be assessed by their peers; potential for providing increased levels of feedback without increased demands on tutors; encourages deep rather than surface learning; give a sense of ownership of the assessment process and improving motivation. Furthermore, peer assessment can be as part of learning so that mistakes are seen as opportunities rather than failures. Also, through peer assessment students can practise the transferable skills needed for life-long learning since it can be used as external evaluation to provide a model for internal self-assessment of a student's own learning (metacognition).
There are some parallelism between most of students with high achievement motivation characteristics and peer assessment design. Those characteristics are having orientation to success, being innovative, being responsive toward feedback, and being autonomous and responsible learners.
Peer assessment which is designed with the students actively involved in the assessment will work best with students who have high need of achievement. Having the students assessing their peer’s paper is not simple. First, the lecturer should make sure that the students understand what to assess, and the criteria used to assess. The students need to study the criteria and the indicators of good writing before they are ready to assess their peer paper. Second, the lecturer needs to provide the students with paragraph sample that allow the students to see its strength and weaknesses. The students are then asked to reviewed the paragraph sample and express about their opinion. To do these two steps, the students need spend some times to train themselves in assessing others paper. And this task absolutely requires students with high orientation of success, since they are very responsive toward any opportunities or any task to attain excellent achievement. Meanwhile, for students with low achievement motivation, who anticipate failure more than success, will find these steps somewhat dismotivating. Students with low achievement motivation will not take any risk to do failure. They are not confident to assess peer’s paper; they are afraid of making mistake in assessing their peer’s paper. In fact, they are afraid of the probability to be marked unfairly by their peer. Therefore, having their paper assessed by their peer is not what students with low achievement motivation will ever think.
High achievement motivation students are very innovative, this is the most determinant characteristics why they can work with peer assessment very well. With their innovation, they can be very independent and creative. In peer assessment, students are learning from each other. They evaluate each other work, i.e. giving comments and scoring their friends paper. These kind of activities will require students to be innovative. Student find a new way of learning to write as they need to learn about the guidelines to assess their peer’s paper. Students with low achievement motivation who are not as innovative as the high achievement motivation will find it difficult, and as they anticipate the failure more, they will unwillingly to do it since they are afraid of making failure. And even if they are asked to assess their peer, since they do insencerely, it will be effective to improve students’ writing achievement.
The characteristics of being responsive toward feedback is also strong poin why high achievement motivation students react very positively toward peer assessment, which may contribute to their writing achievement improvement. Students with high achievement motivation will do action immediately after they receive feedback. As the feedback is from their peer, the students become very competitive in a positive way. They want to show their best writing by taking the feedback from their peers seriously. This way the studenst are motivated to learn from their mistake and from others’ mistake.
Furthermore, students with high achievement motivation suit very well with the autonoumous learning provides by peer assessment. They always try to do their own innovation by themselves. They tend to do things that improve their success very independently, ie. asking leacturer on what they do not understand, seeking and reading book that may help their success, developing their own writing from draft until final product, listening to their friends’ feedback, assessing their friends’ paper with the help of the guidelines given by the lecturer. Meanwhile, students with low achievement motivation will hardly do those responsibilities independently.
The average score of students with high achievement motivation was higher than the students with low achievement motivation. Again, this result shows that students with high achievement motivation can work very well with peer assessment. To understand this, it is necessary to reveal what characteristics of high achievement motivation students have which may be activated by peer assessment.
Heckhausen & Heckhausen (2008) states that motivation is a product of person and situation. Therefore for students who has high achievement motivation, their aspire to a certain goal is influenced by person factors, i.e. their high need for achievement and by situation factors (external factors), including the anticipated outcomes. One of the example of external factor is classroom atmosphere. Peer assessment which enganges students in assessment, creates a more friendly situation, in which students promote their learning by helping and sharing to each other. The friendly situation influences the students’ enthusiasm in learning. It can be seen in the group which was treated by peer assessment. The students in that group talked freely to other friends. They often approached their friends and asked for confirmation on the feedback given to their paper. Students feel less pressure in expressing their opinion and thought towards their peer. Very often students were seen chatting very seriously about their paper. They did their own analysis on the review made by their friend. They also showed a great curiousity to know why their writing was criticized in a particular aspect. Therefore, the internal factor, the need of achievement, which works on the students with high achievement motivation is generated effectively by the situation factor, ie. the frindly classroom atmosphere created by peer assessment.
Moreover, Murray (1938. P.164) in Heckhausen & Heckhausen (2008) defined the need of achievement as the need to accomplish something difficult, to master, manipulate or organize physical objects, human beings or ideas and to do this as rapidly and as independently as possible. Therefore, autonomous learning generated by peer assessment is in accordance with the characteristic of students with high achievement motivation which tend to learn independently (without teacher as the only ionformation giver).
High achievement motivation students are usually characterized by their willingness to do things related to achievement and improvement. These students are very sensitive towards ways to achieve excellent achievement. With the self autonomous learning, students with high achievement motivation autonomously do things to improve their achievement. In the group with high achievement motivation students which was treated by peer assessment, students showed willingness to do things to improve their writing achievement. The students came to the lecturer and asked for things they didn’t understand. Also, they were found reading book about writing which helped them understand how to write a certain type of paragraph well. They compared some paragraph examples provided in the book by themselves to know their stregth and weaknesses. They also used the knowledge they know to assess other peer’s paper and explained it to them. Meanwhile, in the conventional group, the learning was restricted on the material provided by the teacher. The high achievement motivation students who were treated by conventional assessment can’t be as responsive as those who were treated by peer assessment.
Another characteristic is stated by Brunstein and Hoyer (2002) in Heckhausen & Heckhausen (2008). They believe that achievement motive was highly responsive to feedback on individual change in performance. They respond favorably to information about their work. They are not interested in comments about their personal characteristics, such as how cooperative or helpful they are. As soon as their performance decreased below the level expected on the basis of their previous performance, participants high in achievement motivation redoubled their efforts, and showed an immediate improvement in performance. This characteristic, which is very responsive toward feedback, is also parallel with the design of peer assessment which involves students in giving feedback. Although conventional assessment is also designed with teacher providing feedback, but for high achievement motivation students, which prefer autonomous learning, conventional assessment can’t be as effective as peer assessment to improve their achievement.
Another result showed that students with low achievement motivation who were treated by conventional assessment had a slightly better writing achievement than the students with low achievement motivation who were treated by using peer assessment and the students with high achievement motivation who were treated by using conventional assessment. Therefore, it is still important to discuss how students with low achievement motivation can work quite well with conventional assessment.
Unlike students with high achievement motivation, students with low achievement motivation tend to be depended on teacher assistant, since they are usually not as autonomous as students with high achievement motivation (Murray, 1938 in Heckhausen & Heckhausen, 2008). Therefore, conventional assessment which involves teacher more dominantly than the students, provides a perfect classroom atmosphere for students with low achievement motivation. Meanwhile, peer assessment which requires the students to be autonomous and more responsible toward their learning, creates an uncomfortable classroom atmosphere for students with low achievement motivation.
When conventional assessment was applied, students with low achievement motivation were not involve in assessment. The students depended on the teacher feedback only. Since the students with low achievement motivation were not responsive toward autonomous learning, having feedback from lecturer (without being involved in the assessment) worked very well on them. Students wrote certain paragraph and submitted their paper to be marked. They did not need to bother to review their peer’s paper.
Moreover, as the theory says, students with low achievement motivation are not as innovative as students with high achievement motivation. They prefer to choose very easy task in order to minimize risk of failure. Therefore, given less responsibility to them works perfectly on their learning achievement (Atkinson and Feather, 1966) . In contrast, when peer assessment was applied, students with low achievement motivation were required to be responsible to assess their peer paper. These students did the peer assessment but not as effectively as students with high achievement motivation. When they assessed their peer’s writing they did not try to give further example or solution on the problem appeared in the writing. They tended to avoid criticizing their peer’s writing. Most of them tended to write positive comments i.e. the idea is already well-arranged; the grammar is good, etc; despite many mistakes were found in the paper.
The above phenomenon is in line with some theory of achievement motivation. Kurt Lewin and David McClelland theorized that motivation can be oriented toward avoiding failure or toward achieving success. In relation to that, Atkinson (in Atkinson and Feather, 1966) theorized that people with a low need for achievement anticipate failure more than they do success, in contrast to people who seem to have a high need for achievement. This means that, students with low achievement motivation tend to do things to avoid failure. This explains why the low achievement students like to be depended on teacher assessment, because they do not want to make mistake in assessing their peer or to be assessed by their friends.

5 Conclusion, Implication and Suggestion
5.2 Conclusion
Based on the result of the data analysis, some conclusions can be stated as follows: (1) There is a significant effect of peer assessment on the students’ writing achievement; (2) there is a significant interactional effect between the application of peer assessment and students’ achievement motivation on the students’ writing achievement; (3) there is a significant difference between the students’ writing achievement of the students with high achievement motivation when their writings are assessed by using peer assessment and conventional assessment; (4) there is no significant difference between the students’ writing achievement of the students with low achievement motivation when their writings are assessed by using peer assessment and conventional assessment; (5) there is a significant difference between the students’ writing achievement of the students with high achievement motivation and the students with low achievement motivation when their writings are assessed by using peer assessment; (6) there is no significant difference between the students’ writing achievement of the students with high achievement motivation and the students with low achievement motivation when their writings are assessed by conventional assessment
5.2 Implication
The result of this research shows that students who are treated by using peer assessment have a significantly better achievement that the students who are treated by using conventional assessment. This means that some revisions on the writing syllabus need to be done, especially in terms of the type of learning assessment. Peer assessment needs to be considered as learning assessment in writing courses instead of conventional assessment.
Another result of this research is that the average score of the students with low achievement motivation is far below the average score of students with high achievement motivation when they are treated by using peer assessment. The implication for this finding is some efforts need to be done to generate students achievement motivation, since students with high achievement motivation can improve their achievement more greatly than students with low achievement motivation.
5.3 Suggestions
Writing lecturers are suggested to apply peer assessment in their classes to improve the students’ writing achievement Also, writing lecturers are suggested to consider particular condition in implementing peer assessment by having class conference and final revision phase at the end of their assessment.
For other researchers who are interested in improving writing achievement, it is suggested to investigate other approach than peer assessment approach and other achievement contributing factor than achievement motivation.





References
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Pengembangan Kompetensi Pragmatik

Pengembangan Kompetensi Pragmatik Bahasa Inggris pada
Siswa SMA Negeri 1 Singaraja

Oleh:
I.G.A. Lokita Purnamika Utami, S.Pd, M.Pd


Abstrak:



1. Pendahuluan

Salah satu ketrampilan bahasa yang bisa memfasilitasi kegiatan mengakses pengatahuan adalah kompetensi pragmatik, yaitu kompetensi yang terpusat pada penggunaan bahasa baik secara lisan maupun tulisan. Kompetensi pragmatik yang dimiliki siswa memudahkannya dalam memahami sebuah wacana atau pengetahuan yang disampaikan secara lisan.
Kurikum berbasis kompetansi SMA untuk kelas X menyatakan bahwa siswa diharapkan untuk mampu memahami makna dalam percakapan transaksional dan interpersonal resmi dan tak resmi yang menggunakan ragam bahasa lisan sederhana secara akurat. Berdasarkan hal tersbut kompetensi penggunaan bahasa atau kompetensi pragmatik secara oral diharapkan bisa dikuasai oleh para siswa kelas X.
Bagaimana mengajarkan kompetensi pragmatik kepada para siswa? Pertanyaan ini telah berusaha dijawab oleh berbagai penelitian. Penelitian-penelitian tentang kemampuan berbicara mengungkapkan bahwa siswa banyak mengalami kendala dalam menemukan ide, mengawali ide dalam berbicara, dan mengorganisasikan ide dalam berbicara (Agustini, 2001; Martha, 2004; Tresnawati, 2008; Sarmini, 2008; dan Meirawati, 2008)
Para akademisi juga banyak berpendapat dan menjadi sebuah debat tanpa akhir tentang penggunaan teknik yang bersifat kerja group atau teknik yang lebih bersifat kerja individual yang mampu meningkatkan kemampuan berbicara siswa. Berbagai alasann dikemukakan untuk mendukung pendapat tersebut. Bagi yang menyatakan kerja kelompok lebih menguntungkan (Tresnawati, 2008; Sarmini, 2008; Meirawati, 2008) menyampaikan bahwa kehadiran teman sebaya dalam sebuah diskusi menyebabkan meningkatnya percaya diri dan keberanian untuk berbicara dalam bahasa inggris. Sementara, bagi kelompok akademisi (Agustini, 2001; Meirastuti 2008) yang menyatakan kerja individual lebih menguntungkan meyakini bahwa kegiatan berbicara adalah kegiatan yang bersifat sangat personal atau pribadi yang melibatkan waktu berlatih, motivasi personal, bakat dan lain-lain.
Sehubungan dengan penelitian ini, 4 penelitian eksperimen telah dilaksanakan untuk mencari perbedaan hasil belajar siswa dengan membandingkan masing-masing teknik-teknik berikut- teknik Role Play, teknik Group story telling and Fun Game, teknik panauricon dan teknik guided dialog- dengan teknik pengajaran konvensional. Empat penelitian eksperimen inilah yang melandasi penelitian ini. Hanya saja pada penelitian ini, yang dibandingkan adalah keempat teknik tersebut diatas, bukan dibandingkan dengan teknik konvensional.
Berdasarkan pemaparan diatas penelitian kali ini akan bertujuan umum untuk mengembangkan kompetensi pragmatik siswa kelas X secara efektif melalui suatu intervensi dengan berbagai teknik pembelajaran wicara (speaking) dalam bahasa Inggris, yaitu: Role Play, Group Story Telling and Fun Game, Panauricon, dan Guided Dialogue. Untuk itu keempat teknik ini akan dibandingkan untuk melihat apakah ada perbedaan yang signifikan pada hasil belajar siswa, dan untuk mencari tahu teknik mana yang paling efektif untuk dapat meningkatkan hasil belajar siswa.

2. Kajian Teori dan Kajian Empirik

2.1. Konsep tentang Kajian Pragmatik
Crystal dalam Kasper (1997) menyatakan bahwa pragmatic adalah sebuah pembelajaran tentang bahasa yang dilihat dari sudut pandang pengguna bahasa itu sendiri, khususnya tentang pilihan kata yang mereka pakai. Disisi lain, ditemukan juga bahwa pragmatics itu menekankan pada bagaimana susunan dari kata atau frasa itu dapat merubah makna dari sebuah kalimat atau ucapan. Ucapan yang diujarkan oleh pengguna bahasa ketika dia berbicara cenderung ambigu. Itu berarti bahwa ucapan mereka mungkin saja mengandung arti/ makna lain disamping dari makna yang sebenarnya. Oleh karena itu, mengerti dan mengetahui maksud dari orang yang berbicara itu, siapa yang berbicara, dan konteks dari pembicaraan tersebut sangatlah penting guna memudahkan lawan bicaranya memahami makna dari ucapan yang disampaikan sehingga tidak dak ada kesalahpahaman dan respon yang diberikan nantinya juga akan sesuai. Jadi, dengan mengerti dan memahami maksud dari pembicara, pengguna bahasa akan mudah berbagi pengetahuan dan informasi. Mereka juga akan dapat mencapai tujuan utama dalam komunikasi yaitu saling menyampaikan dan menerima informasi.
Dari penjelasan diatas, salah satu kemampuan bahasa yang dapat memfasilitasi siswa dalam mentrasfer pengetahuan dan informasi adalah pragmatic competence. Menurut Brown (2007), pragmatic competence itu adalah kemampuan untuk menghasilkan dan memahami aspek sosiolingistic dan juga functional dari bahasa. Sebenarnya, pragmatic competence itu sendiri menekankan pada penggunaan bahasa lisan dan juga tulisan. Akan tetapi dalam penelitian ini hanya difokuskan pada penggunaan bahasa secara lisan yang mana menekankan pada berbicara. Ada beberapa hal yang harus diperhatikan dalam berbicara seperti, konteks, maksud dari pembicara, budaya dan juga segi grammar/ strukturnya. Berbicara merupakan alat yang pending dalam komunikasi, berpikir, dan juga belajar. Chaney dalam Kayi (2006) mendefinisikan bahwa berbicara adalah suatu proses didalam membangun dan berbagi informasi melalui penggunaan symbols baik secara verbal ataupun non-verbal dalam bermacam-macam konteks. Melalui berbicara, siswa tidak hany dapat mengekspresikan ide, perasaan, dan diri mereka secara verbal tetapi juga dapat belajar bagaimana mengikuti dan memahami aturan social dan buday dengan tepat dalam setiap situasi.
Berkaitan dengan hal tersebut, pembelajaran berbicara yang effective sangatlahn dibutuhkan oleh siswa. Secara otomatis, hal tersebut juga akan berpengaruh pada pragmatic competence mereka. Menurut Kasper (1997), pragmatic competence tersebut harus dikembangkan oleh siswa supaya bisa berkomunikasi dengan baik. Dalam mengembangkan pragmatic competence siswa, tentu saja siswa harus diberikan banyak waktu untuk melatih kemampuan berbiacara mereka. Coulman dalam Kasper (1997) juga berpendapat bahwasiswa harus bergiliran dalam berbicara dalam bermacam-macam situasi. Dengan kata lain, sangat dibutuhkan latihan yang efektif yang mana melibatkan interacksi yang berpusat pada siswa. Porter in Lee and VanPatten (2003) menemukan bahwa interaksi antara siswa didalam kelas menghasilkan peningkatan kesempatan siswa dalam mengekspresikan diri mereka. Oleh karena itu, pembelajaran berbicara di sekolah harus melibatkan siswa dalam interaksi yang efektif sehingga mereka tidak hanya mampu berbicara tetapi juga mampu memahami apa yang menjadi maksud dari pembicara dan juga mampu menggunakan ucapan yang tepat. Dengan kata lain siswa harus memiliki pragmatic competence, khususnya yang berkaitan dengan pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, fluency dan juga comprehension.


2.2. Teknik Role Paly

Role Play adalah sebuah metodologi yang berasal dari istilah Sociodrama yang bisa digunakan untuk membantu siswa memahami aspek-aspek kebahasaan, aspek social, ataupun aspek science atau matematika (Blatner: 1995). Role Play telah diketahui sebagai salah satu metode pengajaran sejar akhir 1940an. Bell (2001) menyatakan bahwa Role Play sudah sangat lama diketahui oleh guru dan para trainer sebagai sebuah teknik yang diguanakan untuk pengajaran keterampilan dan pengemabangan sikap dalam situasi tatap muka. Role Play sudah sangat banyak digunakan dan sudah sikenal sebagai suatu teknik yang efektif dalam pengajaran ESL/EFL.
Dangerfield (1986) dalam Martha (2004) menyatakan bahwa Role Play adalah salah satu metode yang digunakan untuk memaksimalkan waktu berbicara siswa, memastikan bahwa siswa mendapat tingkat latihan yang optimal selama waktu belajar di kelas yang cukup terbatas. Ladousse (1987) dalam Sugihartnini (2005) kemudian juga menjelaskan bahwa Role Play adalah sebuah kegiatan di dalam kelas yang memberikan kesempatan kepada siswa untuk menggunakan bahasa, aspek aturan tingkah laku, dan peran-peran yang memang dibutuhkan dalam kehidupan di luar kelas. Siswa tidak akan merasa canggung untuk menciptakan situasi nyata tersebut dan dengan melakukan hal itu mereka bisa bereksperimen dengan pengetahuan yang mereka dapat di kehidupan nyata dan mengembangkan kemampuan mereka untuk berinteraksi dengan orang lain. Kemampuan siswa untuk menggunakan bahasa inggris secara tidak disadari meningkat dengan melakukan Role Play.
Role Play adalah metode yang sangat bermanfaat dalam proses pembelajaran bahasa asing. Teknik ini sangat menarik dan berguna bagi siswa karena menekankan pada pengetahuan tentang kehidupan nyata. Teknik ini juga memberikan kesempatan berharga pada siswa untuk tidak hanya belajar tentang suatu teori tetapi juga sudut pandang-sudut pandang tertentu tentang hal itu. Tompkins (1998) menyatakan bahwa keberadaan Role Play bisa memacu siswa untuk berpikir kreatif, membantu siswa mengembangkan dan berlatih bahasa baru dan keterampilan bertingkah laku dalam situasi yang relatif nyaman dan aman, dan bisa memotivasi siswa untuk belajar. Larsen-Freeman (1986) menjelaskan bahwa Role Play baik terstruktur atau tidak sangat penting dalam pendekatan komunikaif karena teknik ini memberikan kesempatan kepada siswa untuk berlatih berkomunikasi dalam konteks sosial yang berbeda-beda dan peran yang beragam juga.


2.3. Teknik Group Storytelling and Fun Game
Dasar dari Group Storytelling adalah mencerikan sebuah cerita (storytelling). Larkin (1997) mendefinisikan bahwa storytelling adalah seni penyampaian sebuah cerita atau pengalaman kepada pendengar secara lisan. Dengan menceritakan sebuah cerita atau pengalaman secara lisan/ oral dapat melatih siswa dalam menggunakan bahasa secara natural. Selain itu, menceritakan sebuah cerita adalah kegiatan yang menyenangkan baik bagi pencerita ataupun pendengar dan juga dapat disesuaikan dalam setiap level siswa. Ketika penyampaian cerita secar berkelompok, siswa akan diberikan lebih banyak kesempatan dalam mengekspresikan ide-ide mereka, mengembangkan ide dan juga memilih kata-kata yang sesuai dengan konteks dalam cerita (Sarmini, 2008). Kegiatan seperti itu mengajak siswa untuk berbagi pengetahuan dan informasi dengan teman mereka dan juga dapat melatih siswa dalam berpikir kritis.
Berkenaan dengan hal tersebut, Forest (2000) juga berpendapat Group Storytelling memberikan kesempatan kepada siswa untuk mngekspresikan perasaan, pikiran dan ide mereka secara lisan. Kegiatan tersebut juga mampu menekankan pada keunikan setiap siswa dalam mengimajinasikan sebuah cerita. Siswa dapat mengembangkan imajinasi mereka sehingga nantinya mereka akan menjadi lebih kreatif dan inovatif. Kegiatan ini juga melatih pemahaman siswa terhadap suatu cerita. Kemampuan untuk memahami cerita dapat dilihat dari kemampuan siswa dalam membuat map dari setiap peristiwa dalam cerita tersebut. kosakata baru juga akan banyak dipelajari melalui kegiatan tersebut.
Selain yang disebutkan diatas, Sarmini (2008) juga menyatakan bahwa Group Storytelling merupakan sebuah technique yang meminta siswa untuk menceritakan sebuah cerita secara berkelompok. Kegiatan ini diyakini dapat meningkatkan kemampuan berbicara siswa karena mereka diijinkan untuk berkolaborasi dengan teman-temannya dalam group dan juga bebas mengekspresikan ide dan pikiran mereka. Killen (1996) dalam bukunya yang berjudul “Effective Teaching Strategis” juga menyatakan bahwa dengan belajar dalam kelompok, siswa diberikan lebih banyak kesempatan dalam salingh berbagi dan belajar dari temannya. Mereka bisa berinteraksi dan berbagi informasi dalam situasi yang menenangkan. Hal tersebut juga merupakan salah satu cara untuk mengaktifkan pengetahuan dasar mereka tentang materi yang diberikan dan membantu siswa dalam memahami materi yang diajarkan.

2.4. Teknik Panauricon
Kelen (2006) menyatakan bahwa Teknik Panauricon (PT) adalah sebuah metode belajar yang mengatur siswa di kelas berbicara dalam lingkaran, memberikan mereka kesempatan untuk melatih drill atau percakapan dengan sebanyak mungkin partner yang berbeda. Yang ditekankan dalam teknik ini adalah dalam memposisikan guru dalam kelas berbicara pada posisi sentral dimana dia dapat mengubah alur percakapan setiap saat hanya dengan memalingkan kepalanya. Jadi, guru tidak perlu lagi berjalan-jalan dalam kelas tp siswalah yang bergerak. Dengan cara ini mereka akan merasa bahwa guru akan selalu ada untuk mereka. Berbeda dengan kelas tradisional dimana guru berdiri di depan kelas, dalam PT guru berada di tengah-tengah kelas. Walaupun begitu, PT tetap dinyatakan sebagai student-centered classroom karena, setelah diberikan instruksi atau dengan pendahuluan drill, siswalah yang diberikan kesempatan berbicara. Peran guru adalah membatasi waktu di kelas dan mengatur jumlah maksimum dari latihan oral siswa.
Teknik Panauricon dapat membantu siswa untuk bicara sebanyak mungkin serta untuk memonitor kegiatan speaking sehingga siswa dapat memperbaiki kemampuan speaking mereka. Tujuan dari teknik ini adalah untuk memberanikan siswa untuk bergerak di kelas, memastikan bahwa seluruh anggota kelas berbicara dengan anggota kelas lainnya, untuk mengontrol dan mengatur pergerakan yang dilakukan siswa melalui cara-cara tertentu bahwa siswa diyakinkan jika guru akan tetap bersama mereka dan siap menyediakan keperluan individual mereka (Kelen, 2006).
Langkah Teknik Panauricon
Ada beberapa langkah yang harus ditempuh dalam pengaturan teknik Panauricon, yaitu:
1. Pre-Panauricon.
Sesuai dengan pernyataan Kelen (2006), pergerakan atau kegiatan memotivasi diri merupakan bagian yang penting dalam pembelajaran bahasa. Total Physical Response (TPR) dapat digunakan sebagai salah satu cara dalam mengatur teknik ini daripada siswa hanya diam secara pasif ditempat duduk mereka masing-masing. Kegiatan pemanasan yang dilakukan lewat beberapa instruksi TPR terbukti efektif dapat memudahkan menyuruh siswa bergerak sebagai bagian dari proses pembelajaran bahasa (Kelen, 2006). Pada TPR, guru berada di tengah-tengah kelas sehingga guru dapat mengubah alur percakapan di kelas tanpa harus bergerak.
2. Bekerja berpasangan.
Kelen menyatakan bahwa sangatlah baik memberikan siswa intruksi yang baru dalam menvariasikan drill atau dialog. Membuat perputaran intruksi kelas merupakan bagian yang penting dalam Teknik Panauricon. Kapan dan bagaimanapun (dalam kondisi apapun), melakukan perputaran instruksi di kelas benar-benar merupakan kunci sukses teknik ini. Ketika tidak ada variasi dari putaran pertama ke putaran berikutnya, tepukan tangan atau suara musik dapat menjadi sinyal.
3. Bekerja bersama-sama dalam kelompok yang lebih besar.
Dalam Teknik Panauricon, tahap bekerja berpasangan dapat diubah menjadi bekerja sama dalam kelompok yang lebih besar dimana siswa berlatih dialog sesuai dengan topik yang diberikan. Disini, latihan secara jigsaw dapat digunakan dimana siswa perlu bergerak di dalam kelas untuk mendapatkan informasi dari topik tertentu. Di bagian akhir teknik, setiap kelompok harus membacakan laporan yang sudah mereka buat di tengah kelas.
Teknik Panauricon memberikan kesempatan sebanyak mungkin kepada siswa untuk berbicara menggunakan bahasa target. Guru dapat mengubah alur percakapan sesukanya hanya dengan menggelengkan kepalanya. Di dalam kelas, guru tidak perlu mendatangi siswa jika mereka mengalami masalah tetapi siswalah yang mendatangi guru jika mereka mengalami permasalahan. Dalam teknik ini, penggunaan bahasa diaplikasikan secara nyata dimana siswa dapat mengekspresikan ide-ide mereka dengan bebas bersama teman-temannya. Disini, guru dapat mengatur kelompok yang ada dengan mudah karena mengganti kerja berpasangan menjadi kerja berkelompok menjadi sangat mudah karena dalam teknik ini dari awal siswa sudah berpasangan dalam formasi yang sesuai.
Teknik Panauricon memberikan kesempatan kepada setiap siswa untuk berbicara dengan orang lain, memaksimalkan kesempatan bagi siswa untuk mengembangkan diri secara personal dalam menggunakan bahasa target. Proses pengembangan diri ini dapat memperbaiki bahasa siswa karena hal tersebut dapat memudahkan siswa mengutarakan sesuatu yang dapat dengan mudah diartikan (Kelen, 2006). Pada teknik ini, siswa benar-benar berkomunikasi satu sama lain dan guru ada untuk membantu mereka. Teknik Panauricon merupakan cara yang baik untuk mendorong siswa dalam melihat aspek-aspek yang berbeda dari sebuah topik, untuk memperkaya perbendaharaan kata dan struktur kalimat yang berhubungan atau berguna untuk tema-tema tertentu. Mengulang diskusi-diskusi yang masih ada hubungannya di dalam kelompok dapat membantu siswa untuk berpikir lebih luas dan lebih dalam tentang permasalahan yang ada dan hubungan-hubungan yang terdapat didalamnya.
Teknik Guided Dialog
Guided Dialogue diadaptasi dari teknik Role Play. Dalam Role Play, sebelum mempresentasikan dialogue siswa akan diberikan peran dan diberikan situasi dalam bentuk kartu peran (role card). Akan tetapi, dalam Guided Dialogues siswa diberikan suatu kerangka dialog yang berisi petunjuk, suruhan dan situasi sebagai petunjuk bagi siswa untuk menyusun dialog dengan bahasa mereka sendiri. Sebagai tambahan, beberapa frase (ekpresi) yang berhubungan dengan topik yang sedang dibicarakan juga dimasukkan di dalamnya.
Pada paragraf sebelumnya disebutkan bahwa dialog berkembang pada era Audiolingual Method dan menekankan pengulangan struktur kalimat. Sebaliknya, pada Guided Dialogues siswa tidak dibiasakan untuk memengulangi ucapan yang sama maupun mengisi dialog rumpang seperti yang terjadi dalam masa Audiolingual Methods. Dalam Guided Dialogues, siswa hanya diberikan kerangka tentang apa yang mereka dapat katakana sehingga percakapan mereka menjadi lancar. Di sini siswa bebas membuat kalimat dengan pengetahuan yang telah mereka miliki. Tidak ada batasan bagi siswa seperti pada Audiolingual Methods. Drill/pengulangan kadang dilakukan, tetapi bukan menjadi sifat Guided Dialogues. Hal ini hanya dilakukan apabila siswa membuat kesalahan yang fatal sehingga harus segera diluruskan oleh guru.
Berdasarkan penjelasan di atas, sangatlah jelas bahwa penerapan Guided Dialogues dalam kelas berbicara akan dapat menjawab permasalahan yang biasa terjadi dalam kelas berbicara karena siswa diberikan petunjuk dan diberi kesempatan untuk berinteraksi. Hal ini sejalan dengan Bailey (2005: 36) yang menyebutkan tiga prinsip dalam pengajaran berbicara kepada pemula:
1) Menyiapkan topik untuk dibicarakan.
2) Memberi kesempatan bagi siswa untuk berinteraksi dalam group maupun berpasangan.
3) Mengatur situasi kelas sehingga mendukung praktek berbicara.
Dalam kelas berbicara, dialog meliputi interaksi dan expresi secara lisan untuk menyampaikan ide, peristiwa, situasi, maksud antar pembicara sebagai suatu kebutuhan berbicara. Scott dan Ytreberg (1990:41) menyebutkan beberapa aspek tentang pentingnya penggunaan dialog dalam kegiatan berbicara:
1) Siswa berbicara sebagai orang pertama dan kedua, sedangkan teks biasanya dalam bentuk orang ketiga.
2) Siswa belajar bertanya serta menjawab.
3) Siswa belajar menggunakan kalimat yang singkat serta merespon secara tepat.
4) Siswa tidak hanya menggunakan kata-kata, tetapi juga menggunakan semua aspek berbicara seperti penekanan, intonasi, nada bicara, mimik dan lain-lain.
Dialog berguna dalam membangun suasana “chatting” di dalam kelas. Siswa dapat membuat dialog tentang hal-hal kecil yang terjadi yang melibatkan siswa-siswa yang lain di kelas tersebut.

2.6.Landasan Empiris.
Ada banyak peneliti yang telah melakukan penelitian tentang Role Play (RP) maupun Storytelling Technique Assisted with Series of Pictures (STSP) yang tidak bisa disebutkan satu per satu dalam penelitian ini. Akan tetapi peneliti menyebutkan beberapa penelitian dalam beberapa tahu belakangan ini tentang RP dan STSP yang cukup bisa membuktikan bahwa kedua teknik ini memang efektif untuk mengembangkan kompetensi pragmatik siswa.
RP sudah pernah digunakan di Malaysia oleh Krish (2001) pada pelajar jarak jauh dari Kuching, Sarawak Center yang hanya memiliki waktu yang sangat terbatas untuk bertemu dengan instruktur mereka. RP dalam kelas ini memungkinkan tujuan dari materi yang disampaikan bisa tercapai dalam waktu yang singkat. Hasilnya menunjukkan bahwa pelajar jarak jauh ini menikmati diri mereka selama berperan sebagai orang lain. Mereka merasa lebih dekat dengan anggota kelompok mereka dan menyadari bahwa dengan bekerja dalam kelompok mereka bisa belajar dengan lebih baik. Dengan aktivitas ini mereka juga merasa lebih percaya diri. Dan akhirnya mereka bisa berlatih secara optimal baik tentang bahasa itu sendiri maupun tentang keterampilan berinteraksi meskipun dalam waktu yang sangat singkat.
Penelitian tentang Role Play juga pernah dilakukan pada siswa di Singaraja oleh Martha (2004). Martha mengaplikasikan Role Play untuk meningkatkan kemampuan berbicara siswa SMU Laboratorium IKIP Negeri Singarja. Dia menyatakan bahwa implementasi Role Play mampu meningkatkan kemampuan berbicara siswa terutama dalam hal Pelafalan, Struktur Bahasa, Kosakata, Kelancaran, dan Pemahaman.
Berkaitan dengan teknik storytelling, Ratminingsih dan Namiasih (2004) telah melakukan penelitian dengan mengaplikasikan Storytelling terhadap peningkatan kemampuan berbicara siswa. Penelitian ini dilakukan di SMU Negeri 4 Singaraja tahun ajaran 2004/2005. dari penelitian tersebut dihasilkan peningkatan pada kemampuan berbicara siswa dari pre-test 2.56, 2.99 pada posttest I, 3.71 pada posttest II, dan akhirnya mencapai 4.01. Menurut Ling (2005) beberapa sekolah juga secara intensif mengaplikasikan Storytelling untuk siswa yang baru belajar (pemula) untuk menaruh mereka pada konteks dan melatih kemampuan listening mereka.
Penelitian tentang Fun Game dilakukan oleh Muliani (2002) dalam Sarmini (2008). Hasil penelitiannya menunjukkan bahwa partisipasi siswa dalam kelas berbicara meningkat pada setiap tes. Peningkatan partisipasi siswa dapat dilihat dalam skor pada pre-test, post-test 1, dan post-test 2. Skor pada pre-test adalah 24,1%, kemudian meningkat menjadi 72,4 % pada post-test 1, dan 86,6% pada post-test 2.
Berdasarkan penjelasan di atas, dapat disimpulkan bahwa Storytelling dan Fun Game dapat meningkatkan nilai yang diperoleh siswa. Teknik Storytelling dapat diaplikasikan pada kelas berbicara dan menulis karena berdasarkan hasil di atas nilai siswa meningkat secara signifikan dalam setiap tahapan penelitian yang dilakukan. Selain itu, games juga dapat memperbaiki nilai siswa pada kelas berbicara. Oleh karena itu, kombinasi dari teknik Storytelling dan Fun Game dapat digunakan untuk memperbaiki kemampuan berbicara siswa.
Sehubungan dengan penggunaan teknik Panauricon dalam proses belajar mengajar bahasa Inggris, beberapa hasil penelitian dapat dillihat sebagai berikut. Penelitian terhadap penggunaan Teknik Panauricon dilakukan oleh Kelen (2006). Kelen menemukan bahwa PT sangat efektif untuk diterapkan pada sekolah yang siswanya memiliki latar belakang budaya yang majemuk seperti siswa-siswa di Asia Tenggara, SKH Lam Woo Memorial Secondary School, dan Chinese University of Hongkong karena siswa-siswa disini tidak mengasosiasikan kegiatan yang melibatkan gerakan dengan kelas sebagai konteks belajar. PT merupakan teknik yang sangat berguna untuk mengatasi masalah speaking yang sering dihadapi oleh para siswa dan juga untuk mengatur kelas yang besar.

3 Metodologi Penelitian
Populasi siswa kelas X di SMA Negeri 1 Singaraja tersebar ke dalam 6 (enam) kelas dan setiap kelas terdiri atas 30-45 siswa. Setelah melalui uji homogenitas kemudian ditentukan bahwa 4 (empat) kelas akan direkrut, yaitu: masing-masing diajarkan dengan 4 teknik yang berbeda yaitu teknik guided dialog, teknik role play, teknik panauricon, dan teknik group story telling and fun game.
Penelitian ini dirancang menggunakan rancangan eksperimen. Jenis rancangan eksperimen yang digunakan adalah Post-test only Control Group Design (Campbell and Stanley, 1984).
Pengumpulan data akan dilakukan sebanyak 6 x 90 menit, dengan urut-urutan sebagai berikut: 2 x 45 menit tatap muka pembelajaran dengan teknik masing-masing dan 2 x 45 menit dilakukan pengukuran hasil penerapan perlakukan. Dengan cara tersebut hasil pengukuran segera dengan post test dilakukan sebanyak 3 kali, yaitu post test 1, post test 2, dan post test 3. Hal ini dilakukan untuk menjamin reliabilitas hasil perlakuan yang dilakukan.
Instrumen yang digunakan untuk mengumpulkan data adalah tes berbicara. Tes ini berupa instruksi yang secara umum meminta siswa menunjukkan kemampuannya berbicara.
Data yang diperoleh sebelum dianalisis lebih lanjut menggunakan Analisis Varian, maka data tersebut diuji terlebih dahulu agar memenuhi ketentuan dan persyaratan kesahihan menggunakan Analisis Varians, yaitu: 1) uji normalitas data dengan menggunakan uji Chi-square, dan 2) Uji Homogenitas varians dengan menggunakan statistic levene test
Sesudah analisis dilakukan secara simultan dengan teknik Analisis Varians, dan untuk menemukan perbedaan masing-masing teknik satu dengan lainnya, maka dilanjutkan analisisnya dengan menggunakan teknik Analisis Pasca Penemuan Fakta (post hoc comparison). Pengujian post hoc tests menggunakan uji LSD (least significant different) (Glass dan Hopkins,2008).


4 Temuan Penelitian
Berdasarkan hasil analisis varians satu jalur diketahui bahwa nilai Fhitung dari anova sebesar 4.576 dengan signifikansi sebesar 0.004. Dengan menggunakan dfB = 3, dfW = 155, dan taraf signifikansi 0.05 diperoleh nilai Ftabel sebesar 2.663 sehingga Fhitung lebih besar dari Ftabel sehingga H0 ditolak atau H1 diterima. Ini berarti bahwa terdapat perbedaan pragmatic competence yang signifikan antara kelompok siswa yang belajar menggunakan teknik guided dialogues, role play, panauricon technique, dan group storytelling and fun game.
Untuk mengetahui kelompok perlakuan yang paling efektif digunakan dalam pembelajaran dalam pencapaian pragmatic competence dapat dilihat dari nilai rata-rata yang diperoleh masing-masing kelompok perlakuan. Berdasarkan Tabel 4.1 diketahui rata-rata pragmatic competence sebesar 82.48 untuk kelompok perlakuan guided dialogues, sebesar 81.56 untuk kelompok perlakuan role play, sebesar 80.74 untuk kelompok perlakuan panauricon technique, dan sebesar 83.22 untuk kelompok perlakuan group storytelling and fun game. Jadi, dapat dikatakan bahwa kelompok perlakuan group storytelling and fun game paling efektif dalam pencapaian pragmatic competence siswa.
Sebagai tindak lanjut dari anava satu jalur dengan 4 kelompok perlakuan dilakukan post hoc tests. Pengujian post hoc tests menggunakan uji LSD (least significant different), yaitu :

Dengan,
α = taraf signifikansi = 0.05
N = jumlah sampel total = 158
a = jumlah kelompok perlakuan = 4
nA = 36, nB = 35, nC = 45, dan nA = 43
Jika > LSD maka terdapat perbedaan kompetensi pragmatic yang signifikan dan sebaliknya. Ringkasan hasil pengujian post hoc test dengan LSD ditampilkan pada Tabel 1

Tabel 1. Ringkasan hasil pengujian post hoc test dengan LSD
Mean difference
LSD Keterangan
A-B 0,921 1,555 Tidak signifikan
A-C 1,740 1,464 Signifikan
A-D 0,744 1,479 Tidak signifikan
B-C 0,819 1,476 Tidak signifikan
B-D 1,665 1,491 Signifikan
C-D 2,484 1,396 Signifikan
Keterangan :
A : guided dialogues
B : role play
C : panauricon technique
D : group storytelling and fun game
Berdasarkan Tabel diatas dapat dijelaskan sebagai berikut. Pertama, pasangan kelompok yang tidak berbeda secara signifikan dalam pencapaian kompetensi pragmatik siswa adalah pasangan perlakuan guided dialogues dengan role play, pasangan perlakuan guided dialogues dengan group storytelling and fun game, dan pasangan perlakuan role play dengan panauricon technique. Kedua, pasangan yang berbeda secara signifikan dalam pencapaian pragmatic competence siswa adalah pasangan perlakuan guided dialogues dengan panauricon technique, pasangan perlakuan role play dengan group storytelling and fun game, dan pasangan perlakuan panauricon technique dengan group storytelling and fun game. Ketiga, pasangan yang paling berbeda dalam pencapaian kompetensi pragmatik siswa adalah pasangan perlakuan panauricon technique dengan group storytelling and fun game dengan perbedaan nilai rata-rata sebesar 2.484.

5 Simpulan dan Saran-saran
5.1. Simpulan
Berdasarkan analisis data disimpulkan bahwa:
1. Secara simultan terdapat perbedaan kompetensi pragmatik yang signifikan antara kelompok siswa yang belajar menggunakan teknik guided dialogues, role play, panauricon technique, dan group storytelling and fun game
2. Secara sendiri-sendiri pasangan kelompok yang tidak berbeda secara signifikan dalam pencapaian pragmatic competence siswa adalah pasangan perlakuan guided dialogues dengan role play, pasangan perlakuan guided dialogues dengan group storytelling and fun game, dan pasangan perlakuan role play dengan panauricon technique. Sementara, pasangan yang berbeda secara signifikan dalam pencapaian pragmatic competence siswa adalah pasangan perlakuan guided dialogues dengan panauricon technique, pasangan perlakuan role play dengan group storytelling and fun game, dan pasangan perlakuan panauricon technique dengan group storytelling and fun game. Dari pasangan tersebut diatas, pasangan yang paling berbeda dalam pencapaian kompetensi pragmatic siswa adalah pasangan perlakuan panauricon technique dengan group storytelling and fun game. Dari keempat teknik ini yang paling efektif meningkatkan kompetensi pragmatik siswa adalah teknik group story telling and fun game
5.2 Saran-saran
Melalui penelitian ini, pertama, peneliti menyarankan agar para pendidik lebih memperhatikan teknik pengajaran yang digunakan dalam kelas berbicara mereka. Melalui penelitian ini, peneliti ingin merekomendasikan teknik group story telling and fun game dalam pembelajaran berbicara. Akan tetapi, kombinasi dengan teknik lain juga diyakini akan memberikan hasil yang lebih efektif mengingat salah satu pendorong entusiasme siswa adalah adanya variasi kegiatan siswa di dalam kelas.
Kedua, saran juga ditujukan bagi peneliti-peneliti berikutnya untuk melanjutkan, menyempurnakan dan mengujicoba hasil penelitian ini. Semakin banyak penelitian tentang teknik yang paling efektif dalam meningkatkan kompetensi pragmatik mahasiswa, maka hasil penelitian akan semakin dapat dipercaya.











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A LITTLE PAIN FOR A GREAT GAIN

As it stroke my pelvis hardly n continuously,
then n again
pressed the crotch wide open to its limit
gave nothing but unimaginably pain
pain which you most likely choose not to suffer.
But it wasn't the case as you see her angel red face
coming out from a lonely shelter she occupies in 9 months
Then you start thinking how little pain to suffer to have this lovely creature.
(Dara, mama loves you so much!)

Cooperative Learning Review

A Review of Cooperative Learning Method– Advantages, Disadvantages and Skills of Setting up Cooperative Learning Session


ABSTRACT

Cooperative Learning is a method, which requires the students to work in groups learning interdependently. This procedure enables the students to have support from other learners in a group, which can build the confidence of individual member. However, despite its advantages Cooperative Learning also has some disadvantages. Many teachers do not want to take a risk introducing a new learning procedure, since it may create initial resistance which needs great patience and sensitivity. Beside that, not all teachers have the skills of setting up Cooperative Learning session for it requires hard preparation and other consideration to fit the nature of Cooperative Learning method.

Key words: Cooperative Learning, group work, advantages, disadvantages, and skills


INTRODUCTION

The most effective teachers are likely to be those who are themselves highly skilled and are able to model the kind of competence they are promoting in those they teach. However, it is not simply in personal and interpersonal areas that there will be a call for a wider range of skills in teachers; there will be a need for those who are able to promote learning in ways other than simply imparting knowledge from teacher to students.
It is frequently found that the students in classrooms are not fully able to grapple with a new concept in a certain subject given by the teacher. This is because the teacher engages in a single-fighter role in promoting the learning, which is lack of opportunities for students to increase self-assessment, self confidence, and effective performance.
Freire et.al (2004: 197) also stated about traditional students. He pointed out that traditional students have been formed to be passive receivers rather than active ones. Every student is expected to be on time at school, to listen to the class presentation attentively, do what is asked to do, and work hard in order to pass the final examination. These expectations are resulted in having the students to be passive receivers, since the major aim is to pass the examination not to have knowledge as much as they can. Whereas, the students really need to be put as ones who have a role in determining the learning process
It was Galileo who stated that “You cannot teach a man anything, you can only help him to discover it in himself”. In education, it seems that we really need to advocate a shift of approach from formal teaching to experiential learning, with emphasis being placed on learning rather than teaching, and with each student being given more responsibility for his own direction and development. This will call for teaching methods that develop the role of the teacher more as a facilitator of the student’s learning, than as an expert passing on knowledge of a subject. (Hopson and Scally: 1981)
A teaching method, which really fits those demands mentioned above, is Cooperative Learning method. This method involves some small groups of learning which consist of heterogeneous students in terms of sex, ethnicity, and ability. Subarna and Sunarti (2001) believe that the different ability in classroom can be used as a media to help the students attain their best achievement by assigning them to work in groups. Furthermore, working in group allows the students to see one thing from different point of views. Moreover, they also believe that group work is really important in forming the students’ personality, since the students learn to respect others and communicate their ideas, which form a circle interaction among them. The following figure is the scheme of students’ interaction in group-work:










Student
Student Student

Student

Students Student
Student
The student’s interaction in group-work

Furthermore, Barnas, 1969 in Karsini, 2002 states that an individual student participates more actively in doing group tasks. He also points out that in collaborated interaction, the students do not work only the tasks set by the teacher but they also learn much more than just getting through the tasks. They learn how to accept, elaborate and interpret information or ideas from other students. They learn to communicate and also express their ideas to others. The students in group will pay more attention to the topic being discussed and the tasks. Moreover, Perawati (2002) states that it will be easier for the students to discuss the tasks given by the teacher by sharing the information they have, and it will be more meaningful if the students complete the tasks by discussing the answers with their friends.
There are many advantages which are offered by this teaching procedure, however not all teachers want to take risk introducing it. This phenomenon is because of some reasons which are rooted from some disadvantages this method may create. Introducing Cooperative Learning to students who used to study in a-teacher-oriented classroom is not easy. Teacher may face initial resistance from the students which is caused by a new adjustment to the new method of learning. Besides that, teachers should do extra works to administer this method such as: preparing the materials which fit the nature of Cooperative Learning method, deciding and arranging time and classrooms for Cooperative Learning session and etc. In other word, to be able to these extra works teachers should have the skills of setting up Cooperative Learning session.
The Nature of Cooperative Learning
Cooperative learning is a generic term for various small groups which interactive in instructional procedures. Students work together on academic tasks in small groups to help themselves and their teammates learn the lesson together (Davidson, 1992, in Arend, 1997).
Furthermore, Balkcom (2002) describes Cooperative Learning as a successful teaching method in which small teams, each with students of different levels of ability, use various learning activities to improve their understanding of a subject. In general, Cooperative Learning has the following five characteristics.
 Students work together on common tasks or learning activities that are best handled through group work.
 Students work together in small groups containing two or six members
 Students use cooperative and pro-social behavior to accomplish their common tasks or learning activities.
 Students are positively interdependent. Activities are structured that the students are interdependent to accomplish their common tasks or learning activities.
 Students are individually accountable for their works or learning
Cooperative Learning has been frequently researched and the researches show good result. The results in some studies show that students -who have opportunities to work collaboratively- learn faster and more efficiently, have greater retention, and feel more positive about the learning experience.
Farnish (1990) in Slavin (1997) in her research applied STAD technique. She found that twenty six studies of at least four weeks duration which were taught toward many American and Latino students showed positive result.
Furthermore, Sheehan and Alan (1976) in Slavin (1997) found that both tutor and tutee got benefit from tutorial process. Their research shows that through Cooperative Learning the students’ achievement improved well because there was elaboration material in teaching learning process.
Balkcom (2002) states that many teachers use Cooperative Learning because it can improve the students’ academic achievement, behavior and attendance, self confidence and motivation, and interest in school and classmates. Cooperative Learning is also relatively easy to implement and is inexpensive.
The students work together and maximize each other’s learning since each member’s marks determine the group score. Therefore, every student prefers to be present in each meeting in order not to lose the chance to improve the group’s score. Then, it is clear how Cooperative Learning Method encourages the students to improve behavior, attendance and their achievement by preparing and studying well. When they can improve their achievement, the students will become more confident to participate in the activities.
In addition to this, Arend (1997) states that Cooperative Learning enhances students learning by:
 Providing a shared cognitive set of information between students, which enable the students to see thing from multiple perspectives.
 Motivating students to learn the material
 Ensuring the students to construct their own knowledge
 Providing formative feedback
 Developing social and group skills necessary for success outside the classroom
 Promoting positive interaction between members of different cultural and socio-economic group

Why Cooperative Learning
Farquharson (1995: 93) states there are at least three important reasons to have teaching, which involves groups of learners. The learners may be members of an existing social support system or work group, the learners can benefit from potent influences that are particularly present in group learning situation, and there may be economics of scale that can be achieved through working with several learners at the same time.
In practice, it is necessary to work with groups of learners who may already be a part of work-based team. In this situation, it can be recognized that an individual member’s learning is inextricably linked to the learning of the other members of that learner’s social network. In effect, if each individual’s learning is to be reinforced, then learning also has to take place for all other members of the group. To the extent that all group members are involved in the learning process, they will be increasingly committed to implementing changes that flow out of their shared learning experiences.
Group teaching is particularly helpful in situations in which learners have to achieve higher-order abilities that involve the evaluation, synthesis and the applications of ideas. Group discussion can provide a useful way to grapple with new concepts, attitudes, and skills. Moreover, group learning can help learners understand the material from multiple perspectives. This contrasts with situations in which learners are only exposed to perspectives of a single authority –the teacher.
In ways that are often less explicit, some learning groups offer people an opportunity to learn from successful and less successful models provided by the thoughts and behaviors of other group members. This process, known as social learning (Bandura, 1977) is particularly evident in self-help groups such as those for people with personal difficulties. Albert Bandura believes that human attitude is not simply an automatical response of certain stimulus but it emerges through the interaction between environment and human cognitive scheme.(Muhibbin Syah, 2003)
A third reason for using Cooperative Learning method is obviously, to achieve economics of scale. In many situations it is simply not either cost-or-time-effective to teach on one and one basis. Meanwhile, Cooperative Learning offers either cost-or-time effective to teach students in groups learning. Teacher can effectively assist students in one group about the tasks given at once. Furthermore, since each student has a responsibility to understand the material to up grade the group’s score, then students in one group need to share their ideas to other members of the group to learn about the tasks or material given. This situation enables the students to have shared comprehension at once about one thing.

Advantages and disadvantages of Cooperative Learning Method
There are some advantages and disadvantages that may be resulted from teaching/learning in Cooperative Learning which requires groups learning. Hopson and Scally (1981; 115-117) state the following:

Advantages
 Cooperative Learning enhances students’ social skills through social interaction. Students use their communication skills in expressing their ideas, stating their disagreement and agreement about one thing. Many of the skills that are applicable in a variety of life situations are relevant in small group, e.g. communicating, listening, resolving differences, giving/receiving support, compromising, etc. Unconsciously, students practice these skills in their interaction among other members of the group. They also learn how to appreciate others’ opinion and state their disagreement without letting someone down.
 Working in groups can increase self-awareness, especially when one receives feedback or reaction from others because of their opinion, preferences and experiences
 Group learning can be very supportive and encouraging for individuals to feel accepted by other group members. It can obviously be seen from the way they listen to others’ ideas and give feedback to it. Students may feel nervous initially, but soon after they get used to the situation, they enjoy the learning more than they do in individual learning.
 Students’ self-confidence is also improved to hear others have similar concerns and anxieties. Seeing that someone is prepared to discuss matters that are important to him can encourage others to do the same. More openness is likely to mean more trust and mutual help. Therefore, the students will enjoy the learning since they know that others are willing to help.
 Cooperative Learning can ‘harness’ peer learning since students learn more from their peer group than from teachers. Using groups in the classroom means that the peer dynamic can be channeled and used rather than being left to chance in playground or break time. This can be more exciting and less boring than the routine reception of information from teacher or textbook which is sometimes so uninspiring for some students.
 Group learning, which in many ways can be a microcosm of the wider community, can give individuals a chance to experiment with a range of behaviors. In a group, students may learn the effect of their adapting to, deviating from, challenging or rejecting the others’ point of view. They can experience the effect of their participating in or withdrawing from the group activities. The small group can be an ideal place to test the consequences of human’s many and varied behavioral option.
 Through Cooperative Learning teacher can easily identify students who may need particular, individual help with specific issue. This because when one cannot be helped by others in his learning, the teacher may be the only option, to whom the students come for help.
 Group learning allows the students to have a range of learning resources, because each group member is potentially a source of information and perception, and consequently the focus of learning is not simply the person labeled “ the teacher”. It can give everyone a share of the status and esteem that is afforded to those who teach others.
 The students may have significant messages about the ‘locus of responsibility’ in classrooms. Usually, the techniques employed suggest that it is the teacher’s task and duty to educate all those present. The use of small groups with their emphasis on the value of every member’s contribution can convey that each of the members has something to teach, and also that each of them can direct their own learning by formulating their own ideas and by analyzing, accepting, or rejecting the views they hear expressed.

Disadvantages
 Since Cooperative Learning requires new teaching procedure, then it may require adjustment to new methods of learning by the participants. Introducing new norms can produce a challenge to the rest of system and initial resistance and tensions will need patience and sensitivity to work through.
 Cooperative Learning can encourage experimentation with the new mode, which can be upsetting to those who do not see this as a necessary stage towards growth and development. Usually this thing happen to the higher-ability students who may be felt disturbed to share their ideas, since they may think that they can make things done themselves
 Since there is less apparent control by the teacher and more need for students’ responsibility, the learning may produce more overt interpersonal dynamics, which have to be recognized and managed, than would be apparent in many formal classroom sessions.
 Teaching procedures in Cooperative Learning, which require the students to direct their own learning by formulating their ideas, can be difficult for traditional system and some teachers to accept. It is understandable, since teachers usually have their control in the classroom as it is applicable in traditional system.
 Cooperative Learning requires more preparatory work than more formal lesson. Teacher should prepare structured material, tasks, and activities which best handled through group work. Furthermore, teacher may consider some preparations if necessary such as; making room arrangement, obtaining additional equipment for the room, preparing some visual aids and others teaching media
 It can be more difficult to evaluate the learning than in those lessons in which the students can be given a written test and their answers marked right or wrong.
 Since Cooperative Learning requires the students to develop the skills of group participation, the teacher should have increased awareness, be prepared to work with more challenging methods and develop skills other than those of imparting her own knowledge.

The Skills of Setting up Cooperative Learning Session
To work effectively, using a small group approach to creating educational events, the teacher will require skills in contracting, designing, preparing, managing, following up, and evaluating small group work in classroom settings.
Contracting
So many attempts to introduce new or different elements into the curriculum founder because initial contracts are unclear. Perhaps it sounds strange to talk of ‘contracts’ with the legal overtones implied; however, physical contracts exist between people, whether they are written down or not. As with any form of contract, the clearer it is, the more likely that all parties to it are communicating clearly.
Contracting is a stage of planning for classroom work that begins prior to the design stage and continues through the design process into the preparing stage, and also to the management stage.
The first part of any contract is to be clear about what you want to achieve, what is negotiable and what non-negotiable, what happens if the contract is broken, who the parties to it are and whether it is renegotiable. In schools, this means being clear on your own objectives, finding out what the students expect, and ensuring that the consensus is achieved with them, checking out with colleagues, superiors and parents when appropriate.
Designing
In designing phase the teacher should be able to clarify the objectives, building the contract, making the most of the learning environment, selecting appropriate teaching procedures, structures and materials, considering the learning sequence, identifying what needs to be done before the event.
The teacher once again clarifies the objective and makes sure that it is clear what she want to achieve so that she will be able to evaluate how effective her work has been.
Building the contract is really important because once the contract is understood to be an agreement between the teacher and her teaching group, then it will obviously have to consider what will be taught/ learnt, and how the learning will take place.
In making the most of the learning environment, the teacher should consider when where and to whom she attempts to teach it. The teacher should make sure that the time and place available appropriate to what she hopes to achieve, and that the students has agreed to learn the issues.
In designing any educational session it is important to consider teaching procedure, group structures and types of material which best achieve one’s teaching objectives and match one’s preferred approach. Therefore the teacher should be able to decide which teaching procedures; e.g. presentation, demonstration, group learning, individual learning, structured experiences, etc which are suitable to achieve the learning objectives. Moreover, the teacher should be able to choose the appropriate teaching structures, such as whole group, small group, pairs, trios or quartets, fishbowl, circle, horseshoe, rows, table group, inter-group, three-ring circus, option groups, or self-select groups. And finally, the teacher should be able to select an appropriate teaching materials, such as films, video systems, overhead transparencies, slides, sound tapes/cassettes, Questionnaires, handouts, worksheets, students material, etc.
The final question may be whether the teacher has considered the timing, the sequence and flow in her design. If all these option have been done well it means that the session of teaching/learning will be effective.
Preparing
The time between planning and designing one’s teaching event and actually running the session can be crucial to its success. Good schemes and designs are in themselves not enough; they have to be turned into actual happenings, and at the end of the design stage one is likely to be left with the amount of preparation. This preparation will require some definite action plans to ensure it is not overlooked.
The teacher may consider some preparations if necessary such as making room arrangement, obtaining additional equipment for the room, preparing some visual aids, preparing some materials for the students, communicating any information regarding the session to colleagues and students, enlisting the help of anybody else, obtaining any additional information, making sure of the implication of the design for the system, thinking about things that should be done between now and the teaching session.
Managing
When all the planning, designing, and preparation are over comes the chance at last to work face-to-face with the students in the classroom. In managing phase the teacher should be able to cope with the groups, to have the skills of beginning and ending the session, to choose the most appropriate teaching style, to produce and maintain the most conductive learning climate, to have the skills of building the trust.
Seating the students also may be one option to be considered in managing phase. The following are seating options to suit various purposes.






















Hopson and Scally (1981)




Following up
The effective teacher’s task is not complete with the end of any group session because there is likely to be some follow-up work to be done. It will be important to ensure that this is done if group motivation is to be maintained; it can be very discouraging for groups to put real effort into producing work which is then not rounded-off or finalized. The follow up works may include checking out the students who seem particularly subdued, giving personal feedback to the students, checking out the students whose feeling or reaction the teacher is unsure, completing the plans or agreement made during the session, giving assessment to the students if necessary, returning any teaching media, keeping all teaching materials and restoring the classroom into its former layout.


Evaluating
At the end of any piece of work, it is obviously necessary to attempt to asses its value. This will mean that the future work can be built on its success or be redesigned to improve on what was not so effective. Evaluation will be most meaningful if it relates to the teaching/learning objectives one has in setting up the experiences. The questions one has to address are:
• What did I wish to teach my groups?
• Did I have any additional objectives? (to encourage a quiet student to contribute, or to give a special support to a student who was at risk)
• Did I have any objectives for myself? (e.g. to become more confident in managing subgroups, to manage the timing more effectively)
• Did members of the groups have any declared objectives? ((e.g. to enjoy the session or to learn any particular skills)
• Were the objectives achieved?

CONCLUSION
From the explanation above about Cooperative Learning, it is clear that Cooperative Learning offers many advantages in spite of some disadvantages. Cooperative learning has been designed to help the students to attain their best achievement by working with their peer-mate. The students are given chance to have their role in the process of learning rather than being exposed to one center- the teacher. The students work with their peer-mate, they communicate their own ideas and learn to listen and respect other’s ideas. All students have chance to express their own thought, which enable them to have shared experiences and to learn from others. However, some disadvantages including extra hard work the teachers should do and/or face should be considered before they decide to introduce Cooperative Learning Method to their classes.
Moreover, to have the students work in group effectively the teacher should apply more skills other than those of imparting her own knowledge. The teacher should work through several phases which require some skills such as skills in contracting, designing, preparing, managing, following up, and evaluating small group work in classroom settings.
Obviously, conducting Cooperative Learning method requires hard work and patience in order to achieve the main objective –that is to have the students improve their achievement.
References
Arends.R. 1997. Classroom Interaction and Management. Central Connecticut State University

Balkcom Stephen 2001. An article: Cooperative Learning. U.S. Department of Education. Internet: http://www.ed.gov/pubs/OR/ConsumerGuides/cooplear.html

Eggen and Kauchack. 1988. Strategis for Teachers Content and Thinking Skills. Engle Wood Cliff New Jersey: Prentice Hall

Farquharson. 1995. Teaching in Practice. San Fransisco: Jossey Bass, A Wiley Company

Fraenkel, Jack R and Wallen, Norman E.1993. How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education. Singapore: McGraw-Hill INC

Freire Paulo, Ivan Illich, Erich From et.al. 2004. Menggugat Pendidikan. Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar

Hopson Barrier and Mike Scally. 1981. Lifeskills Teaching. UK: McGraw-Hill Book Company

Karsini, Pande Luh. 2002. Improving the Third Year Students Participation in Reading Class through Jigsaw Reading at SLATP N 6 Singaraja in the Academic Year of 2001/2002. Unpublished thesis of IKIP N Singaraja

Muhibbin Syah, M.Ed. 2003. Psikologi Belajar. Jakarta: PT RajaGrafindo Persada

Perawati, Ni Made. 2002. Increasing the Participation of the First Year Students of SMUN 3 Singaraja in Reading Class Through STAD Technique. Unpublished thesis of IKIP N Singaraja.

Subana, M. Drs and Sunarti, Spd. 2001. Strategi Belajar Mengajar Bahasa Indonesia. Bandung: Pustaka Setia

Widiasa K. 1998. Peningkatan Interaksi Belajar Mengajar Melalui Pembelajaran Kooperatif. Makalah disampaikan dalam pelatihan Dalam Negeri, Bidang Proses Belajar Mengajar dan Kurikulum Penelitian Tindakan Kelas dalam rangka Kemitraan Internasional STKIP Singaraja dan La Trobe University-Australia. Reasearch Report, STKIP Singaraja